Formal Technical Report Organization

Whenever any investigation is conducted, it is essential that a record of the investigation and its findings be completed. Typically the communication is addressed to the individual who requested or authorized the investigation. While oral communication, producing its only record in a few memories, may suffice in very simple situation, and memoranda may suffice in a slightly more complicated situation, the usual manner of communication is by a written report. The specific format of the report will vary according to the subject matter (a process design report would be different from a financial report, etc.) and according to the amount of information to be transmitted; small amounts of information can be transmitted very informally, large amounts require a more formal, detailed format. Above all, the report must be tailored to the needs and desires of the individual or group for which it is written.

The following outline of a complete technical report and is more comprehensive than what is typically found in any single report. Certain sections may be combined or deleted entirely, depending on the requirements. The contents of each section, however, will not vary. For more extensive discussion of the contents in each section, the reader is referred to technical writing textbooks.  Every report is different, but a general format that works well is outlined below. Descriptions of specific sections follow.

The general outline of a formal technical report is as follows:

The purpose and contents of each section are described below.

Outside Cover Page

This is much like the cover of a book and should contain the name of the experiment, your name, Group number, other team member(s), "ChE 382 Lab", Semester, date experiment was performed, and date report was submitted. The paper used for this cover page should be a slightly heavier weight than the other pages of the report.

Letter of Transmittal

The purpose of a letter of transmittal is to make reference to the assignment of the report, the letter of instructions, the custom which makes the report necessary and also to highlight some of its contents for the individual reader. Thus, it should point out specific sections of the report that should be studied in detail by the recipient. In contrast to the body of the report, the writer's personal opinions may be expressed in the letter of transmittal. The letter is written in an informal business style; e.g. personal pronouns are in order. The letter is normally as brief as possible.

Title Page

The title page normally includes:

• The complete title.
• The name of the person to whom the report is submitted
• The name of the writer and co-workers.
• Organization publishing the report.
• Date of submittal.

Identify the project with a descriptive title. Indicate names of all participants, date of submission, and dates when experiments were conducted.

Title Block

All formal reports must have a title block giving the name of the report, author(s) and location where the work was performed, the date, and distribution list for the report.  The title of the report should be descriptive.  For example, “Comparison of Experimental and Theoretical Ion-Exchange Resin Mass Transfer Properties” is much more descriptive than “Ion Exchange.”

Abstract

Summarize the important results. The abstract must be self-contained: do not refer to figures and tables located in other sections of the report. Do not include tables, figures, and equations, unless absolutely necessary. Do not assume that the reader will unambiguously identify undefined symbols. Be precise and succinct. Do not exceed one page. The Abstract should be written with great care because it is a most important part of the Final Report and will have a very large impact on the grade assigned to the work.

Abstract (15) - One-paragraph synopsis of the project experiment, including objective, equipment description & conditions, results (actual numbers where possible), and conclusions. The abstract must be written in prose style with complete sentences.

Write a 100 to 200 word abstract.  The abstract must be concise, clear, and informative.  The first few sentences will typically contain information on what was studied as part of the investigation, any critical background information, and the crucial element(s) of the experimental apparatus or procedures.  The next couple of sentences state specifically your experimental results, if they agree with theory, and your conclusions.  In many reports, the abstract is the most critical section of the entire report. This may be the only section most people read so whatever impressions you want to convey, the abstract is the place to shine.

The purpose of the abstract is to immediately acquaint the reader with the actual content of the report. The abstract in short paragraph summarizes the main purpose and method of the investigation as well as the principal facts and conclusions reported. Specifically, an abstract should: 

• Introduce the subject matter to the reader.
• State what was done. 
• Briefly state the major results (quantitative values, if possible). A discussion of results is rarely included in the abstract.

Summary

The summary is a brief statement about the purpose of the study and the general method of approach, followed by a synopsis of all the principal facts and results developed in the body of the report.

While the abstract tells the reader if the report falls within the reader's range of interest, the summary tells the reader of the report's entire contents in brief form. The summary should be comprehensive in that it should cover all phases of the investigation, but it should not go into minor details in any particular phase.

The emphasis and point of view reflected in the summary should be the same as that developed in the main body of the report; no material should be introduced which does not appear in expanded form in the main text. Specifically the summary should:

• Introduce the reader to the background and the purpose of the investigation. This does not mean a review of the literature but simply the "why" of the investigation.
• State what was done and what the report covers.
• State how the results were obtained.
• Give important results which relate to the purpose of the investigation. Be specific and give quantitative information. Avoid qualitative statements and generalities. Recognize the achievements of the objectives established in the introduction.
• Present logical conclusions easily related to the information contained in the detail sections. Exclude the development of new ideas not presented in the body of the report.
• Present statements with regard to future action where appropriate. Develop intelligent and practical recommendations commensurate with the conclusions. Hypothetical conclusions are left to the discussion section.
• Include appropriate summary statements so as to make the closing relatively independent of the body of the report.

The summary is often the most important and useful section of the report. It is the major, and sometimes the only, part of the report read by upper management.  It is a compromise between brevity and completeness and must be a “stand-alone” document.

The summary is not a duplication of text from other sections. It is a brief, precise, factual, and explicit description the objective or rational for the work, background (including previous projects), purpose of the work and other key points (relevance to the business), results, and the intended applications of the results (recommendations). The summary may be only a few short paragraphs and numbered statements. In any case, it should not exceed one page in length.

Present sufficient information so the readers will have an understanding of the work that has been done, even if they do not see the rest of the report. Write with your audience in mind. Make certain the benefits of the recommendations are stated clearly, together with the required action.

The summary should be on a separate page of the report.

Table of Contents

In the table of contents list every title and heading in the text and the number of the page on which it appears.

A table of contents should appear in every formal report.  Include each major subsection and its page number.  Note that the page number of the table of contents is not given in the table of contents. 

Write a complete list of the sections used in the report with page numbers designating the first page of the section.  Use "heading" and "figure" fields throughout your report so that you may simply use the "Insert table of contents" function in Word to automatically create the Table for you.

Lists of Figures and Tables

After the table of contents,  list all tables and figures, including sketches, graphs, and photographs, separately.

Introduction

This section introduces the reader to the material you will present.  Even if you are writing the report to a person who asked you to do the study, it may have taken months to complete the project tasks/ experiments.  A reminder of the original intent (purpose) of the study is needed.  State the objectives of the project/experiment.  Also emphasize briefly why the project/experiment is important; if you cannot convince the reader at this point that your work is worth reading, it may never get read.  Very briefly include any especially pertinent historical information on the subject under investigation, experimental work done on the subject, etc.

The introduction of a formal technical report prepares the reader for the body of the report and may include any or all of the following:

• Present a statement of the subject being considered - Nature of the study
• Clarification of the subject of the report
• Define the purpose and objectives of the report
• Explanation of the need for the investigation – a statement of the status and purpose of the study and the relationship to the business needs of the enterprise
• Scope of the investigation
• Clarify the circumstances or conditions associated with the developing subject
• Background for the work:
• References to previous or related work
• Long-range and short-range objectives
• Summarize the highlights of the information presented in the detail sections
• Focus attention on the key conclusions and recommendations
• Define the plan or organization of the report

The introduction should inform the reader of the problem, objectives, and approach. Indicate reasons for doing the work and status. Provide background information by briefly describing prior relevant work. How complete the findings are.

Conclusions, Recommendations, and Auxiliary Issues

Conclusions are statements reflecting an increased factual understanding of a subject or phenomenon. Recommendations are action items that should be taken because of these conclusions. Conclusions and recommendations may be presented in two separate sections, if desired.

Conclusions

The conclusions are a series of numbered statements which answer the questions posed when stating the purpose of the project. Conclusions include only pertinent information and are based solely on data within the report. 

Present conclusions in order of importance, in either paragraphs or a list. This section should not contain any supporting data or any of the reasoning leading to the conclusions. That information is properly presented in the discussion section.

Tell what specific conclusions you have drawn based on the results you presented in the previous section.  The confidence you feel in your conclusions and how you have reached them should be fully discussed.  The conclusions should be neither over-stated, nor under-stated.  Provide key conclusions relative to the objectives of the experiment and summarize the most important numerical data.

Recommendations

Recommendations are a logical extension of the conclusions. Often, the conclusions will imply that certain actions should, or should not, be taken. Recommendations are a brief, explicit summary of these action items. Recommendations for action are often conditional or should carry a caution. State these auxiliary issues.

The recommendations are specific definite proposals for future work, (e.g. suggested changes in equipment, study of new variables, or possible experiments in related fields). Like the conclusions, the recommendations are usually listed by number and consist of only a sentence or two.

Suggestions for additional work or modifications of current procedures, equipment, etc. are appropriately stated here.  What have you learned from performing the experiment or analyzing the data that could be improved for the next experimenter?

NOTE:  Conclusions and recommendations are often placed after the results section, because conclusions and recommendations follow logically from the discussion of the results. However, we have chosen to adopt an action-oriented business format and place the conclusions and recommendations before results and discussion of results. Managers and business teams often prefer to skim the details for consistency and comprehensiveness. They can be effective in this approach, if they know the path the results should follow and what supporting items should be present. The technical depth and accuracy is still required in the results and discussion of results for those wanting to pursue the details and check the accuracy and credibility of the work.

Literature Survey

This section of the formal report is also known as "Previous Work", Theory", "History", "Background", etc. In a technical report, it is seldom possible to review the theory and practice of a given problem exhaustively. However, it is possible to discuss the principal contributions. The aim should be to critically evaluate previous work and show what is known about the problem.

In presenting the literature survey, attention should be directed to the development of the theoretical principles. However, do not explain elementary theory or derive equations which are available in standard texts or in the literature cited. If an equation of the author's own derivation is used, its derivation should be given in a theory section. 

In a few pages, give the reader the theoretical and experimental background necessary to understand the underlying science and engineering involved.  Provide theoretical background and assumptions for the equations and correlations used to analyze the data.  All equations must be numbered.  References to pertinent papers or books should be given here.  Avoid extraneous theory, but instead explain clearly the theory pertaining to your experiment- assume the reader is technologically proficient.

Theoretical principles are stated in the present tense, while references to the experimental work of others are given in the past tense.

Detailed Sections (Body of the Report)

The body of the report will consist of detailed sections which depend on the nature of the report. Descriptions laboratory experiments and process design specifications are examples of what might be included in these sections. 

1. Approach (Experimental Design)
2. Observations (Presentation and Discussion of Results)

Apparatus and Procedures

Describe the experimental apparatus and procedures used in great detail.  A clearly drawn illustration is essential to help explain the setup (see discussion of Figures in the next section). The equipment diagram can be a line (not necessarily 3-D) drawing.  It need not be, and often should not be, pictorial.  Show equipment items, the flow of materials, and all control (manipulated) valves and other important valves, such as inlet steam, cooling water, etc. on your diagram.  It is critical to identify all measurement points for temperatures, flow rates, pressures, etc. and all sampling points.  Neatness and professionalism, or their lack, are very apparent here. Use French curves, straight edges, and templates, or preferably computer software.  Avoid freehand sketching unless absolutely necessary. Equipment diagrams should be original work; they should not be supplied from a previous lab group's report.

The equipment diagram should go hand in hand with a description of the apparatus and the procedure.  Describe the apparatus in the text.  For the procedure, clearly describe what you did.  Another engineer should be able to duplicate your experimental data from the information you provide, using a similar, though not necessarily identical, piece of equipment.  Any equipment, valves, etc. mentioned in the procedure should be shown on the equipment diagram.  This section should be written in prose; it should not be a list.  Likewise it should NOT be written as an "instruction manual" Do not merely copy instructions from lab book!

Experimental Detail

Briefly, summarize the pertinent experimental and analytical background, equipment, procedures, and significant details.

Results

Include all tables and graphs that document your final results. Include all relevant information so that you can later refer to these figures in the Discussion section to support your conclusions. If possible, present the results in the same order that you listed the objectives. Do not discuss the significance of the results - this can be done in the discussion section. Include only final results that satisfy the objectives of the experiment; lengthier tables and intermediate figures should be included in the Appendix. Introduce the reader to each figure and table with a brief paragraph indicating what variables are plotted or tabulated. Each figure and table must have a unique number and a title or caption.

A paragraph description of data obtained. Most results will be in the form of tables and figures which are included here. Be sure to put titles/headings on figures & tables. All "raw data" should be put into Appendix. Tables might include final calculated data, list of parameters evaluated, etc. Figures should include Arrhenius, concentration/ time, vapor/liquid composition plots, etc.

This is where your data is presented.  Clarity here is of the greatest importance.  Results should usually be reported using a few, well-constructed graphs of an appropriate type, along with supporting descriptive text, i.e. this section should be written out, not just a collection of graphs. Look in journal articles or refer to writing guides on the ERES page if you are uncertain of proper format. The figures should allow the reader to see trends in the data, and use them for reference while reading your "Discussion" section.  Take the time to format figures in the clearest possible way and remember the old adage that "a picture is worth a thousand words".  Include any models, literature data, correlations, etc. on the same graph for later discussion.  Use data points for data only and include error bars; models and correlations should appear as lines. Include captions below your figures, and be sure to number them.  Numerical results must include estimation of error to be meaningful!

Discussion

The discussion tells the reader what you have found out.  Refer to your results.  If applicable, discuss the effect changes in the experimental variables had on the results. Compare your results with theoretical predictions, correlations, literature values, etc.  Explain or account for any differences.  An analysis of the sources and magnitudes of errors is appropriate.  In the discussion, be quantitative.  Also, provide physical insight into your results.

All equations, etc. must be numbered and referred to.  The reader must not have to wonder how any value was obtained or calculated.  Questions like: How were your calculations done?  What was measured and what was calculated? must be clearly answered.  Any ambiguity will be considered a wrong result.

 This is the main section and it should describe in detail the work that was done. It should be subdivided as necessary to improve clarity. Possible subheadings include the following:

Background

Literature Review

Theory

Development of Methods of Analysis

Laboratory Equipment (process and analytical)

Experimental Procedures (preparation of materials, experimental design, startup and shutdown, etc.)

      Results

Industrial Applications

Write a 1-2 page overview concerning the potential industrial applications of the equipment and process studied.

Discussion and Interpretation of Results (including statistical and error analysis)

The principal function of this section is the presentation of results (experimental, computational, abstract reasoning, etc.), and their interpretation.

The exposition of results and interpretation should follow a logical order, even though this may not be the chronological order of the study.  The author can use a logical order to lead the reader through the reasoning process used in designing the project and interpreting the results.

Conclusions and recommendations should be included at the logically appropriate points in this textual development. This is particularly important since, although they will be reiterated in other sections, they will be separated from the supportive context in a brief summary form.

This section may briefly describe the procedures used in the work. If the procedures themselves represent the major thrust of the document (as in the description of a new analytical method), they can be covered in detail. In some cases, the author may wish to stress the results, but the procedural details are important enough to be carefully documented in the report. In this case, a detailed description of the procedures should be relegated to a separate section and the reader directed to this fact in the discussion.

During the development of the discussion section, the author may want to cite important numerical results.  A useful way to do this is to insert a table in the text at the point at which it is cited.  It should be as short as possible, containing only those facets of the results being alluded to at that point in the text.  Such a table may represent an abstract of a more extensive one in an attachment or appendix.

The same device may be used to include a graphic aid at some pertinent point in the test of the discussion.  The figure may be a simplified version of a graph or diagram in an appendix.

Difficulties encountered, sources of error, reliability of the data, comparison with (and deviation from) expected values, etc. Recommendations could be included here.

Discussion

The discussion tells the reader what you have found out.  Refer to your results.  If applicable, discuss the effect changes in the experimental variables had on the results. Compare your results with theoretical predictions, correlations, literature values, etc.  Explain or account for any differences.  An analysis of the sources and magnitudes of errors is appropriate.  In the discussion, be quantitative.  Also, provide physical insight into your results.

All equations, etc. must be numbered and referred to.  The reader must not have to wonder how any value was obtained or calculated.  Questions like: How were your calculations done?  What was measured and what was calculated? must be clearly answered.  Any ambiguity will be considered a wrong result.

Experimental Accuracy and Precision

Include purity of materials, accuracy of measurements, precision of analyses, etc. in a propagation of error method to reveal the uncertainty on the results and recommended actions.

Safety

General considerations for this section include statements of the safety concerns and consequences and descriptions of how the experimental design addresses these concerns and consequences.  Discussions of items that were considered but were found not to be a concern are also important.

Discuss the hazards of materials, equipment, and procedures and potential personnel exposure to toxic or hazardous materials. Outline recommended personal protective equipment.

Environmental

Discuss any emissions and proper disposal of wastes. Discuss how experimental procedures were designed to minimize environmental impact and to maximize conservation of resources.

Industrial Applications

Write a 1-2 page overview concerning the potential industrial applications of the equipment and process studied.

Acknowledgements

This section expresses appreciation to those who aided in work. Perhaps they provided the original idea or plan, gave helpful suggestions, or assisted with routine analyses. Such acknowledgment is not mandatory, but it is courteous and a positive assurance of help in the future.

Nomenclature

Usually it is desirable to define symbols in the text of the report in the order of their appearance. Where this practice becomes confusing to the reader or laborious for the writer, the symbols may be arranged in alphabetical order in a table of nomenclature. The symbols are arranged in alphabetical order. First the Roman letters followed by Greek letters and then special symbols. The accompanying definitions must include the proper units.

If the report contains many equations with many terms, the terms (with units) should be identified at the end of the report. A report with a few simple equations having only few terms can be identified completely within the body of the report. It is up to the author to judge when a separate nomenclature section is required

List all variables (symbols) found in your report, what the variable represents, and the dimensions or units of the variable.  Use the format in Energy and Fuels or AIChE Journal.  Give units that are used by you for all variables.  If dimensionless, say so.  List in alphabetical order with Greek letters grouped together at the end also in alphabetical order.

References

A list of references should be collected into a reference list arranged alphabetically by author. Refrain from including any references which are not specifically mentioned somewhere within the report. Complete citations should be given.

This section should include all reference materials which were used to develop the project and which form the basis for conclusions and recommendations. List only those references used in the report and give complete information so that reader has no problem finding the reference. The references should be listed alphabetically by the last name of the first author.

The most common method of bibliographic notation in chemical engineering is to put the author's last name and the year of publication in the sentence where the reference occurs, using parentheses as needed. For example, you might write the following sentence: “Colburn and Hougen (1933) first demonstrated how to include the effects of the non-condensable gas in designing a condenser for a vapor containing a non-condensable gas.” For two authors, include the last names of both authors; for three use the first author's last name and “, et al.”

Footnotes for tables in the body of the report or in attachments should be included at the bottom of the tables.

Use the format in AICHE Journal. References are listed at the end of the report in a single section headed "References".  They should be in alphabetical order by lead author.  Only references actually cited in the report should be listed.  Be very specific; give edition and page number for books.  Do not cite Perry's Handbook; Perry's is often a great place to start and will refer you to important literature on a topic.  Get this literature at the library and cite it. Give the complete citation.  References should be cited in the report as (last name of author, year).  If two authors: (name and name, year).  If more than two: (lead author name, et al, year).  I will give extra credit for exceptional finds.

Attachments/Appendices

In the appendices are presented experimental data, supporting calculations, and any other information or material not conveniently included in the body of the report.  Include information that, though relevant, is not necessary to mention in the body of the report to support the experimental design plan. Include additional appendices as needed.

• Preliminary Design Report
• Data Book ("Blue Book")
• Calculation Sets
? Calculation files 

 

* Tables with intermediate results 

* Computer printouts 

Typically, appendices in a formal report may include (1) safety and toxicity information, (2) detailed sample calculations using data obtained in laboratory, (3) professional quality tables of all data (both calculated and observed), (4) error analysis stating the errors involved in the experimental measurements and their anticipated affect on the results, and (5) copies of the relevant laboratory notebook pages.

Raw data, sources of data if other than that generated by your group, sample calculations for each parameter evaluated, etc.

The appendices contain materials not included in the main body of the report but relevant to it.  In particular, this includes calculations, derivations, calibration curves, computer programs, and other such items.  Four items (shown below) are specifically required.

The report body should be a readable and rather fast moving document. A reader may want to duplicate or expand the work, or to dig deeply into the subject matter, and will study the appendices. These should include supplemental detailed material that supports items presented in the main body of the report. Appendices are numbered with capital letters and are listed in the Table of Contents as separate entries with the title of each appendix.

Tables.

Large groupings of data should be included as attachments.  Shorter tables, essential to the flow of information, may be included in the discussion section.

Figures.

Drawings and figures should be large enough so the reader can easily follow them and contain a level of detail appropriate to the project.

Sample Calculations.

All calculations used to make a decision in the laboratory report should be included in an appendix so the work can be reproduced.  Lengthy computer programs or printouts may be stored electronically and referenced in the laboratory report by directory and file name.

Sample calculations for all results, graphs, etc. showing how you got your results.  This section is critical.  It must be clear and unambiguous as to where all values come from.  Cite references for correlations and values for physical properties (i.e., thermal conductivity).  State assumptions.  Check assumptions whenever possible.  Calculations can be handwritten if clear, but computer-generated equations are preferred.  Ease of following, clarity, source of all numbers used, and completeness (not ambiguous) are more important than word-processing skills.

One sample of every engineering calculation must be shown. This is often most conveniently done by taking a single run and showing how the results are obtained from the tabulated data. This section is very important for your grade. It must be clear.  All equations should be numbered if needed for reference in the text.  It might be useful to think of this section as a textbook that you are writing for a beginning student.

Note on equations: If you cannot make correct symbols on a word processor, write equations by hand clearly in good format rather than use written expressions like "delta T" or "INT" for an integral sign.  Such unconventional expressions are never used.  In other words, if you cannot type the equation as it should actually look in a textbook or technical journal, then write it clearly by hand in correct form, rather than invent new or substitute symbols.

Error Analysis

Pertinent Communications

Verbal agreements concerning issues included in a laboratory report should be e-mailed among the members of the discussion group, and included in an appendix of the report.

Overall Long Report Specifications

The report should be bound with a plastic spiral with front and back covers.  They should have a professional look about them. All written lab reports are due at the start of the laboratory class two weeks after performing the experiment.  The Teaching Assistant will collect the reports and give them to the professor for grading.  Late reports are unacceptable, and 10 points will be deducted per day late. The internal contents should consist of all sections listed on the following page. Lab reports must be typed.  Only the equations and calculations in the Sample Calculations section may be hand written if necessary.

Never, ever, ever copy someone else's lab report or any section thereof.  This includes your lab partner's report, other class member's reports, or past lab reports.  Any student caught plagiarizing a lab report will be given the grade of 0 and may be subject to disciplinary action. Original data sheets must be signed by the Graduate Teaching Assistant on the lab day the experiment is performed, and before leaving the lab.All data must be taken in a bound (not loose-leaf) lab notebook.  A copy of this data sheet should be included in the lab report.

 An example of the grading sheet I will be using, with point values is shown below: